3_Mongol Incursion

This is the third #generalhistory note, following 2_Fall of the Kyivan Rus.

The Invasion

• The Mongols, a tribal people who rose to prominence under Genghis Khan, expanded their rule across vast territories following his unification of the Mongol clans.
• After Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons and grandsons. The westernmost lands—including Central Asia and the steppes east of the Volga—were granted to Batu Khan. Dissatisfied with his inheritance, Batu launched a westward campaign into Europe.
• Standing in his way were the fractured Rus' principalities. Among the first to fall was Vladimir-Suzdal, which was conquered in 1238.
• In 1240, the Mongol army—known as the Golden Horde—captured Kyiv, massacring much of its population. This marked the definitive end of Kyivan Rus as a unified political entity.
• Despite the devastation of Kyiv, its population did not flee en masse to the Volga region, as some have suggested. Such a migration would have meant moving directly into Mongol-controlled territory rather than seeking refuge in the forests of northern Ukraine along the Prypiat and Desna rivers. Linguistic evidence supports this, as the oldest Ukrainian dialects are found in western Ukraine rather than in the Volga region.

Divergence

• Before the Mongol invasion, power in Kyivan Rus had once again shifted. Danylo of Halych, a native of Volhynia, had effectively united most of the western principalities, including Kyiv, under his rule.
• The Mongol invasion forced the Rus' princes to choose how they would respond:
  • Prince Mykhailo of Chernihiv refused to submit to Mongol rule and was executed.
  • Yaroslav of Vladimir became the first Rus' ruler to swear fealty to the Mongols. His son, Alexander Nevsky, continued this loyalty, later gaining canonization in the Russian Orthodox Church for his defense of the region against Swedish and Teutonic incursions.
  • Prince Danylo of Halych also submitted to Mongol rule but used their support to strengthen his own position. He consolidated his power, rebuilt the economy of his lands (referred to increasingly as "Ruthenia"), invited refugees from the east to settle in the west, and moved his capital westward to modern-day Khelm, later founding Lviv.
• The rise of Galicia-Volhynia as a dominant power had already begun before the Mongol invasion due to shifting trade routes, but Mongol rule accelerated this trend.
• Ruthenia found itself in a unique position: too weak to challenge Mongol rule directly but valuable enough for the Golden Horde to tolerate a degree of autonomy. Unlike the more tightly controlled Russian principalities, Ruthenia was left to conduct its own foreign policy, which Danylo used to seek independence.
• In 1246, Danylo met with the Pope to negotiate support for Ruthenia’s liberation. The Pope required Danylo to recognize papal authority, to which he agreed. In return, the Pope crowned him "King Daniel of the Rus" and called for a crusade against the Mongols. Danylo also strengthened ties with Central Europe by marrying his children into the Austrian and Hungarian royal families.
• In 1253, banking on Western support, Danylo launched an offensive against the Mongols. His initial campaign was highly successful, reclaiming parts of Podolia and Volhynia.
• This success was largely due to Mongol internal struggles; Batu Khan died in 1255, and the Golden Horde was embroiled in a succession crisis.
• However, after five years, the Mongols had stabilized and launched a counteroffensive. At this critical moment, Western aid—which Danylo had relied upon—never materialized, leaving him to face the Mongols alone.
• In response, the Mongol commander Burundai arrived with an overwhelming force, forcing Danylo into negotiations. The resulting agreement required Danylo to:
  • Join Mongol campaigns against the Lithuanians and Poles, undermining the alliances he had built.
  • Dismantle fortifications around his cities, weakening Ruthenia’s defenses.
• With no alternative, Danylo complied, once again becoming a vassal of the Mongols.

Consequences

• One major consequence of Danylo’s dealings with the Pope was that Vladimir-Suzdal replaced Kyiv as the seat of the Orthodox Church in 1299. The Byzantine Patriarch, disapproving of Danylo’s ties to Rome, shifted the metropolitan seat northward. This move strengthened the position of northeastern Rus', particularly Moscow.
• By 1325, the Orthodox Metropolitan officially moved to Moscow, reinforcing its rise under the Mongols' patronage.
• The Mongols institutionalized the title "Grand Prince of Rus" to help manage their vassals. Initially held by the rulers of Vladimir, it later became a contested prize between Moscow and Tver. Over time, Moscow secured dominance, further centralizing power in northeastern Rus'.
• Meanwhile, to counter Moscow’s growing influence, the Byzantine Empire approved the establishment of a second metropolitan in Galicia. This led to the term "Little Rus" (Malorossiya), which some scholars believe originally referred to an "inner" or "closer" Rus'.
• The Mongol invasion forced Rus' elites to choose between aligning with the east (represented by the Mongols and, to some extent, Byzantium) or the west (represented by Central European rulers and the Papacy).
• This period marked the emergence of both Ukraine and Russia as distinct entities:
  • Ukraine (Ruthenia) maintained a delicate balance between eastern and western influences, prolonging its autonomy for another century.
  • Russia, centered in the northeast, remained under Mongol dominion, where Moscow gradually consolidated power under Mongol oversight.

Continuation

Continues in 4_Polish_Lithuanian Rule

Sources

This information was gathered from The Gates of Europe_A History of Ukraine (Pages 49-57).